ABOUT FIRST AID for FINDS
Foreword
The first edition of First Aid for Finds was fifty-three years ago. That a fourth edition is now considered desirable is explained by the continued challenges which on-site archaeologists face in retrieving objects and information. Despite tremendous advances in the science and technologies now applied in archaeology – sophisticated methods of geophysical and aerial prospecting, thrilling analytical and dating techniques, many under-pinned by ingenious computer power – the nature of actual on-the-ground excavation has changed relatively little over those years. Compare the pages of any archaeological magazine, or historic and current televised digs, then and now, and you will still see images of excavators kneeling, bending low, troweling the earth, intensely and sensitively searching, revealing and exposing the artefacts or their vestigial remains. You can only date the images by the diggers’ clothing. The process cannot be done by robots and probably never will be.
This means that the stuff that is so painstakingly exposed to view, often after centuries or millennia of burial, now so vulnerable to changed environments, still needs the skills, the know-how and the right materials to maximise the informational value which will repay the resources put into excavation.
That first edition was produced at a time of feverish archaeological activity, generated by alarm at the rate of destruction of archaeological remains by building developments, to which we had been alerted by the new body Rescue. Rescue archaeology was in its infancy; there was no such thing as developer funding. The first edition was a response to that pressing need by a small dispersed group of us conservators[1] who recognised that there were not enough archaeological conservation posts to service other than a minute proportion of sites, although a training course in conservation had been in place at the London Institute of Archaeology for many years, and that our archaeological colleagues might welcome some guidance based on our collective experience. Looking back now it was clear that our expertise was fairly limited, but we believed that some advice was better than none. How things have changed! The discipline of archaeological conservation is now well established in London, Durham and Cardiff Universities, as well as overseas; extensive research and publications on materials, their degradation processes and conservation contribute daily to our knowledge. Thanks to improved know-how and indeed to subsequent much enhanced editions of First Aid for Finds, archaeological staff are now not only much better equipped but are able to widen the range of evidence they can expect from their finds. The continuing demand for this publication, as earlier editions have gone out of print, speaks for itself. Now this welcome change in format - from hard copy to online - will ensure that it can be easily accessed, updated and expanded as research and practice require.
The authors, contributors and editors of this edition are among the leading experts in this field. The range, comprehensiveness and applicability of their advice is truly impressive.
David Leigh, January 2025
[1] First and revised 1978 editions: Rodney Alcock, Ione Gedye, Janet Warren, Henry Hodges, Suzanne Keene, George Learmonth, John Musty, Andrew Oddy, Pamela French, John Price, Elizabeth Pye, Stephen Rees-Jones, David Watkinson.
The Current Team
First Aid for Finds is the result of the collaborative efforts of the authorship team who have worked on the 4th Edition of the guidance.
NICOLA EMMERSON, BSc, MA, PGCE, PhD
I trained in general object conservation at Cardiff University, where I also developed an interest in prehistoric archaeology. After completing a masters in Neolithic Europe, I worked as a conservator of predominantly archaeological materials for a commercial service before training as a secondary chemistry teacher at Manchester Metropolitan University. Returning to Cardiff to study a PhD in protective coatings for historic wrought iron in collaboration with Historic Environment Scotland, I was appointed to a lectureship at the university in 2014. I teach all aspects of conservation to undergraduate and postgraduate conservation and archaeology students and supervise numerous PhD students. My research focuses on corrosion of archaeological and historic metals and methods of corrosion prevention, particularly desiccated storage.
Within the sector, I have served as the Chair of the Metals Committee of the Institute of Conservation, am the Coordinator of the Metals Working Group of the International Council of Museums Committee for Conservation and am Vice Chair of the European Federation of Corrosion Working Party 21 Corrosion of Archaeological and Historical Artefacts.
JAMES A. SPRIGGS, Dip Cons, ACR, FIIC, MCIfA, FSA
I am an archaeological conservator with a special interest in waterlogged organic archaeological materials. After graduating in Conservation from the Institute of Archaeology, University of London, I joined the newly formed York Archaeological Trust (YAT), in York, UK, in 1972. I established, developed and headed the YAT conservation laboratories for 34 years until my retirement from that position, to run my own consultancy. At YAT, I led the conservation team as part of major projects including the Viking Coppergate excavations, and research and establishment of the Jorvik Viking Centre, York. I was a Trustee of the York Foundation for Conservation and Craftmanship (2000-2020), and have been Membership Secretary and Editor for the York Consortium for C&C. My experience as a site conservator includes not only for YAT and but also for excavations in Belize, CA.
My service to the profession over many years has included committee membership with both conservation and archaeological professional organisations – including ICOM-CC WOAM working group; the UK International Institute for Conservation (UKIC) Archaeology Section (now Institute for Conservation ICON); and the UK Chartered Institute for Archaeology (CIfA). For ICOM-CC WOAM I have been an editor, author, conference organizer and reviewer. In 2016 I was awarded the ICOM/WOAM Lifetime Achievement Award. I have been a named author on over 50 publications, and also written information and training leaflets and guidelines for first aid treatment and conservation management of finds for the Portable Antiquities Scheme, Historic England and the British Standards Institute, and was a contributing author to the second edition of First Aid for Finds.
SARAH C. WATKINS-KENNEY, BSc (Hons), MA, PhD, FIIC, ACR, MCIfA, RPA
Since graduating with a BSc (Hons) degree in Archaeological Conservation from Cardiff University, Wales, in 1977, I have worked variously as an archaeological conservator, conservation manager, researcher and lecturer in a range of public sector organizations in the UK and USA. Including in the UK for: Doncaster Museum, Bristol Museum, Oxford University’s Institute of Archaeology, Wiltshire County Council Library and Museum Service, the British Museum, and Cardiff University. At the British Museum I was Head of Section for metals, ceramics, and glass conservation (1994-2003). In the USA from 2003-2020 I worked for the North Carolina Department of Natural and Cultural Resources’ Office of State Archaeology. I was head of the Queen Anne’s Revenge Conservation Lab (QAR Lab), located at East Carolina University (ECU) in Greenville 2003-2019. I was also in 2008 an Adjunct Lecturer in the Department of Anthropology, at ECU, and an Adjunct Research Instructor (from 2020). I have experience as a site conservator on a range of archaeological excavations of land and underwater sites including: Danebury Iron Age Hillfort in the UK; an Iron Warrior burial in Guernsey; Etruscan, Roman and Medieval sites in Gubbio, Nepi, and San Vincenzo in Italy; and in the USA, North Carolina state shipwreck 31CR314, La Concorde/Queen Anne’s Revenge (1718).
While continuing working I gained my MA degree in Museum and Gallery Management, from City University, London in 1994, and PhD from East Carolina University (ECU) in North Carolina in 2019. For which my research was on conservation management of underwater cultural heritage by public agencies in North Carolina. I was elected a member of The Honor Society of Phi Kappa Phi, by the Chapter at East Carolina University in 2019. I am a Registered Professional Archaeologist (RPA) in the USA, and an accredited Member of the UK’s Chartered Institute for Archaeologists (MCIfA), a Fellow of the International Institute of Conservation (FIIC), and an Institute of Conservation (ICON) Accredited Conservator-Restorer (ACR). My service to the profession has included committee membership of the UK International Institute for Conservation (UKIC) Archaeology Section (now Institute for Conservation Icon); the Finds Group of the UK Chartered Institute for Archaeologists (CIfA); and the international Advisory Council on Underwater Archaeology (ACUA). For Icon I have been a conference organizer and proceedings editor and author. I was a conference organizer for ICOM-CC WOAM working group’s 2010 triennial meeting. I am a named author on over 35 publications, and have been a contributing author to various archaeological and conservation professional standards and guidelines, including the second edition of First Aid for Finds.
DAVID WATKINSON, Dip. Cons., MSc, FSA
Struggling to think how to combine my interests in chemistry, history, art and all things practical while cycling in France aged 16, a chance meeting with a conservator from the British Museum was the lucky encounter that led me to conservation. After studying the Institute of Archaeology 3-year Diploma in Archaeological Conservation, a short period working in Museums was followed by conserving material from the Welsh Archaeological Trusts, while teaching practical to Conservation and Archaeology Undergraduates and studying for an MSc by research. In 1985 I began managing the UG Conservation degree at Cardiff, teaching theory, laboratory practice and in-situ field projects, later introducing a portfolio of Postgraduate Taught degrees to supplement the BSc.
In tandem with my teaching, my research focuses on the corrosion and conservation of metals, along with some work on inorganics, mainly glass. Primarily, I seek to elucidate corrosion mechanisms and treatments to provide guidance for conservation practice. In this way, Cardiff research underpinned the conservation of Brunel’s wrought iron steamship SS Great Britain, which supported its award of the Gulbenkian Museum prize in 2006. Thematically my research goal is to develop understanding of corrosion and decay mechanisms provide evidence-based conservation procedures. This stems from the belief that without materials science elucidating the properties of materials, all conservation processes are empirical and carry the risk associated with this.
I was awarded the Plowden medal in 2009 and have been a Chair in Conservation at Cardiff University since 2012. At various times I served on ICON and IIC committees, I have published over 80 research articles in a range of Journals, conferences and books, as well as successfully supervising over 20 PhD students.
Additional contributions
Helen Ganiaris
As chair of Icon AG from 2018 to 2023, Helen shared the management of the production of FAFF. She coordinated recruiting of a project manager and reviewers and contributed to production of text and figures. She also was the liaison with Icon and RESCUE and reported regularly on progress to various groups.
Johanna Thunberg
Johanna is a trained archaeological conservator and Teaching Associate at Cardiff University who is researching the desiccated storage of metals and the corrosion of copper alloys. She has contributed to the desiccated storage advice offered in this guidance.
Mark Lodwick
Mark is an archaeologist and finds specialist who was formerly the PAS Finds Coordinator for Wales. He is now the archaeological and conservation photographer at Cardiff University and produced the artefact images for First Aid for Finds.
Previous Contributors
First Aid for Finds has always been a collaborative project and contributions from colleagues in the sector have shaped the guidance from its first edition to the current version. The First Aid for Finds team thank the following colleagues, past and present, for their contributions:
3rd Edition
1998
David Watkinson
Virginia Neal
1st Edition
1972, reprinted with revisions 1978, 1981
David Leigh (Compiled by)
Rodney Alcock
Pamela French
Ione Gedye
Henry Hodges
Suzanne Keene
George Learmonth
John Musty
Andrew Oddy
John Price
Elizabeth Pye
Stephen Rees-Jones
Janet Warren
David Watkinson
2nd Edition
1987
David Watkinson (Editor)
Christopher Calnan
Kate Hunter
Barry Knight
Sonia O’Connor
Hazelle Page
Jim Spriggs
Katherine Starling
Susan Thomas
Sylvia Turner
Sarah Watkins
RESCUE
RESCUE, The British Archaeological Trust
RESCUE was formed as a charitable trust in 1972, following a series of meetings during 1970-71 of archaeologists who were concerned about the rate of destruction of archaeology in Britain during the rapid expansion of development from the 1960s onwards. The initial impetus was a campaign for better structures and funding to get the archaeology recorded, and saw the creation of the emotive ‘Stonehenge in a bulldozer’ logo and broad publicity to inform the public about what we were losing. At the same time there was a recognition that education was also important and various publications were launched. First Aid for Finds was one of the first of these, published in 1972 and drawing on the expertise of a founding RESCUE Council member, David Leigh. The objective was to provide help for field archaeologists to ensure that the finds from the increasing number of excavations were treated as well as possible, particularly given that “the facilities available in government and museum laboratories are totally inadequate for the task” according to a conservator quoted in the first RESCUE News in 1972.
Over the intervening years RESCUE has continued to be active, dedicated to supporting archaeology and the historic environment in Britain and abroad and often speaking out about issues as soon as they arise. Council members, who are all voluntary, frequently put together responses to proposed changes in legislation that may impact the historic environment and support individual campaigns to protect and record archaeological sites. RESCUE is open to all – for more information about becoming a supporter and getting involved see our website, https://rescue-archaeology.org.uk/ , or contact us at office@rescue-archaeology.org.uk.
The First Aid for Finds partnership between RESCUE on behalf of field archaeology and conservation, now represented by the ICON Archaeology Group, has continued over the years, with new and improved editions in 1987 and 1998 as the demand for the books continued. We hope that the fourth edition will reach a new audience via this website.
How to Use First Aid for Finds
Revisions
First published in 1972, First Aid for Finds has served well as the primary source of practical help and advice for anyone working with, or interested in, freshly excavated archaeological finds. Simple to use and follow, with resources and references, First Aid for Finds has found a place in site huts, finds sheds and museum offices and stores around the country and across the world. It has instilled an understanding of the basic methodology for caring for finds which has undoubtedly helped to protect and preserve many objects and collections which might not otherwise have survived.
This version of First Aid for Finds has been re-written and expanded to serve a new audience in a new way. Whether a professional or amateur, a student or trainee, or a metal-detectorist, this website is intended to instruct and guide readers in the correct care and identification of finds and materials from land-based archaeological contexts. The advice is informed by the latest knowledge and techniques, backed up by references and advisory notes and guidelines produced by bodies such as Historic England, The Chartered Institute for Archaeologists, the Council for British Archaeology, and the Institute of Conservation. Terminology has been updated to reflect current parlance, for example, “small finds” have become “registered finds”. The authors hope that this accessible version of First Aid for Finds provides advice which will become best practice and that it will be used as a standard reference on the field conservation of freshly excavated archaeological finds.
First Aid for Finds focuses on finds from terrestrial environments with dry to waterlogged conditions. Marine finds, especially shipwreck materials, are specifically excluded from First Aid for Finds as the burial environment and other complexities of this topic merit a separate publication. Similarly, archaeological finds from other climatic zones not encountered in the UK, such as desiccated or frozen materials, are also excluded. However, with such caveats, much of the information contained in First Aid for Finds may be employed successfully on archaeological projects in other countries, taking into account differences in climate and burial conditions, and the types of finds and materials likely to be encountered outside the UK. Similarly, artefacts from old excavations now housed in museums and other collections cannot be dealt with adequately here, but much of the information and advice provided will still be of direct relevance and value.
How to Use First Aid for Finds
Those putting this advice into practical use are dealing with archaeological finds at their most vulnerable, in other words, immediately upon discovery. Prompt action in accurately identifying what finds are composed of, and knowledge of how to lift, handle, examine and package them, may be vital for the survival of the object and the information it contains. Those applying First Aid for Finds in the field act as proxy for the professional conservator who should, ideally, also be part of the field team or at least be on call to deal with complicated finds and emergencies. Full collaboration between field-team and conservation specialist can ensure the best outcome for the survival of the finds archive.
Before applying selectively any of the step-by-step practical instructions given in this guidance, please read the sections on materials identification and deterioration first so you understand the scope of what each will be covering. Although primarily a practical field-guide, First Aid for Finds also contains scientific information about the conservation process which you will find helpful.
A select bibliography at the end of each page provides a small number of publications which complement the aims and objectives of First Aid for Finds and underpins the rationale for the advice provided. These resources are useful for students studying conservation and archaeology, as well as readers who wish to research specific aspects of this general topic. Sources of further information, such as advisory bodies and specialist groups, are listed. A detailed list of supplies and equipment mentioned in the text, plus sources and providers is offered to aid procurement.
For those involved in running the finds processing system on a field project, use First Aid for Finds in conjunction with the finds processing and management protocols employed by the project. If setting up from scratch, then there are good general finds management manuals available on request from many of the established field excavation companies in the UK.
The First Aid for Finds Team